Carl Sagan showed that the greenhouse effect was responsible for temperatures on a. Mercury b. Mars c. Venus
Sagan advocated for a. nuclear advancement b. nuclear détente c. nuclear disarmament
Sagan began to fear the effects of global climate change in a. the 1960s b. the 1970s c. the 1980s
Discussion/essay questions
Do you think space exploration is important for the future of humanity? Why or why not?
Transcript
Carl Sagan was an American astronomer and science writer. He is widely known for his 1980 TV series Cosmos and book by the same name, which helped introduce astronomy concepts to everyday people. Sagan was very interested in the possibility of alien life. He studied the climates of other planets to find out if they were habitable. He was the first scientist to show that the high temperatures on Venus were because of a greenhouse effect. In the 1970s, Sagan led the project of putting together the Golden Records for NASA’s Voyager probes. Sagan and his team chose a series of images and sounds to represent life on Earth. Sagan was very concerned about the future of humanity. He advocated for nuclear disarmament, and his research on Venus’s climate caused him to fear the effects of global climate change early in the 1960s.
At the beginning of the story, Alonso Quixano is a a. king b. knight c. nobleman
The book is a parody of a. ancient epics b. medieval legends c. tragic plays
In the book, the author claims that a. the story is true b. the story came to him in a dream c. the story is based on his own life
Discussion/essay questions
Do you think fiction and non-fiction are always two different categories? Is it possible for a book to be both? Why or why not?
Transcript
Don Quixote is a novel written by the Spanish author Miguel de Cervantes. It is considered one of the most important books written in Spanish. The story follows a nobleman named Alonso Quixano, who spends his time reading medieval stories about knights and princesses. Quixano wants to have his own adventures and fight evil in the world. He decides to become a knight, takes the name “Don Quixote,” and begins a series of quests. The narrative is a parody of the legends that were popular at the time. It was originally published in two books, in 1605 and 1615. Within them, Cervantes plays with the ideas of fiction and history. He claims that the story is true, and that he is only the translator. Some of the characters in the second book have even read the first book. Don Quixote is one of the earliest novels written in Europe. The first English novels came several years later.
Wikipedia contains about 7 million articles a. on its English site b. that are available to the public c. in total
Nupedia’s volunteers were supposed to be a. well-paid b. experts c. students
Wikipedia’s community tries to a. ignore misinformation b. spread misinformation c. document misinformation
Discussion/essay questions
Do you use Wikipedia regularly? When would you not use it? Do you think it should become a more accepted source? Why or why not?
Transcript
Wikipedia is one of the most popular websites on the internet. It is available in over 300 languages, and its English site contains nearly 7 million articles. The idea for a free online encyclopedia began in the 1990s, when the internet’s user base was still growing. In 2000, an entrepreneur named Jimmy Wales created a site called Nupedia. The original goal of Nupedia was to publish free articles by expert volunteers. However, Nupedia’s volunteers wrote new articles very slowly, and the site did not gain many users. The site’s editor, Larry Sanger, suggested adding a wiki page to encourage community participation. As Wikipedia’s popularity grew, people became concerned about the concept of an information source that anyone could edit. However, some researchers have found that Wikipedia contains about the same amount of mistakes as other online sources. Wikipedia’s community also documents misinformation on the site. People now use Wikipedia to learn new things every day.
A polar vortex is an area of a. high-pressure wind b. low-pressure wind c. high-temperature wind
The polar vortexes a. appear only during the winter b. appear every seven years c. are always there
When the polar winds weaken, temperate regions will likely experience a. warmer winters b. warmer summers c. colder winters
Discussion/essay questions
Has your region experienced any effects of climate change? What are leaders doing about it? Do you think they should be doing more? Why or why not?
Transcript
A polar vortex is an area of low-pressure wind that circulates at the Earth’s poles. The winds of a polar vortex are very high in the atmosphere, and they contain some of the Earth’s coldest air. The northern and southern vortexes are always there, but changes in the winds can affect temperatures around the world. When the winds weaken, they affect lower belts of air called polar jet streams. If a polar vortex is not strong enough to hold the winds in place, the jet stream can grow wide and irregular. Unusually cold winters can happen when jet streams spread cold polar air to more temperate regions. It is possible that climate change will affect the polar vortex by weakening the polar winds over time. This could change the way that many regions experience seasons and create new extreme weather patterns, both hot and cold.
The best word for items like salt and livestock is a. mints b. tokens c. staples
The first metal coins were a. Chinese tokens b. Mesopotamian shekels c. Greek drachmas
The first kingdom to make its own official currency was a. Lydia b. China c. Rome
Discussion/essay questions
One of the most common sayings about money is that it doesn’t buy happiness. Do you agree or disagree?
If the world had a barter system, what do you think you would contribute?
Transcript
For thousands of years, people have exchanged goods. The earliest people known to use a barter system were Mesopotamian tribes around 6000 BCE. To make trading simpler, tribes created a currency out of staple items like salt or livestock. However, this was often impractical, especially when people needed to trade over long distances. Some of the first items used as money were clay tokens in Mesopotamia and seashells in China. Around 2500 BCE, Mesopotamians began using silver shekels, the first metal coins. The first kingdom to make its own official currency was Lydia. To show that the coins were official, the kingdom’s mints stamped images on them. Ancient Greece and Rome later used coins stamped with the faces of their gods and rulers. Paper money originated in China in the 7th century CE. It made large transactions easier, but it also made counterfeits a bigger problem. Today, many paper bills include special materials or ink to protect against counterfeiters.
Madonna’s family was very a. progressive b. easygoing c. traditional
In New York City, Madonna studied a. vocals b. religion c. dance
Madonna was controversial for a. her displays of sexuality b. her use of religious symbols c. both a and b
Discussion/essay questions
Why do you think people use religious symbols in their art, even if they are not religious? Do you think it is okay to borrow religious images? Why or why not? Does it depend?
Transcript
Madonna is an American singer and icon of the 1980s. She is known as “The Queen of Pop.” She was born Madonna Louise Ciccone in Michigan in 1958. Madonna lost her mother when she was young, and she often had to take care of her younger siblings growing up. Her family was very religious and traditional. As Madonna got older, she began to rebel against her family’s beliefs. She moved to New York City to study dance. There, she joined two bands, but she eventually decided to become a solo singer. Madonna quickly became famous for her upbeat music and her flashy performances. Her use of religious symbols and her displays of sexuality angered leaders in the Catholic church, but the controversies didn’t hurt her popularity. Madonna’s success showed that the music industry was changing. She was one of the first female superstars to gain global fame by herself. Since 2009, Madonna has held the record for the best-selling female artist of all time.
Brave New World is set in a future version of a. London b. New York c. Paris
The real historical person who is a religious figure in Brave New World‘s World State is a. Winston Churchill b. Henry Ford c. H. G. Wells
Brave New World began as a parody of a. science fiction b. pulp fiction c. utopian fiction
Discussion/essay questions
It is often said that dystopian books “predict the future.” People have claimed this about Brave New World, as well as other dystopian novels like Nineteen Eighty–Four and The Handmaid’s Tale. Why do you think this is? Have you read any older dystopian books that feel very important now? Have you read any newer dystopian books that you think will become important in the future?
Transcript
Brave New World is a 1932 novel by English writer Aldous Huxley. The novel is set in a version of London, England in a future dystopian society called the World State. In the World State, the businessman Henry Ford has become a religious figure. The World State tries to keep its citizens happy with technology and drugs. It uses cloning technology to produce children. These children are genetically selected for a specific class and role within society. Huxley’s work was influenced by the genre of utopian fiction, which was very popular at the time. Many utopian novels described futures where technology had solved all human problems. Huxley thought this was an impossible and even dangerous idea. Brave New World began specifically as a parody of the utopian novels of H. G. Wells. Early reviews of Brave New World were often negative. Readers at the time thought it was disturbing and pessimistic. Over time, it became a classic of dystopian fiction, especially as technology grew and changed.
The Western Arabic numerals are mostly used in a. Arabic b. Indian languages c. European languages
The Italian mathematician Fibonacci learned the Western Arabic number system in a. Bugia b. India c. Spain
The numbers that most Arabic-speaking countries use today are closer to a. Roman numerals b. Indian numerals c. Chinese numerals
Discussion/essay questions
Does your first language use Western Arabic numerals, or does it use a different system?
Do you prefer numbers and math or words and languages? Why?
Transcript
Numerals are the set of symbols a language uses to represent numbers. European languages like English count with a set of numerals called Western Arabic numerals. These are different from the numerals actually used in Arabic. Europe became familiar with the Western Arabic number system in the 12th century. The Italian mathematician Fibonacci learned the system from merchants in Bugia, or modern-day Algeria. These numbers spread because they made complex calculations easier. Before, Europeans were using Roman numerals, which were tedious. The Arabic system was useful because it used place value to show large numbers. That meant it only needed ten symbols. The mathematicians in North Africa who developed the symbols learned the system from Indian mathematicians and astronomers, who first invented a digit to represent the number zero. The numerals that most Arabic-speaking countries use today are much more similar to the Indian numerals.
The theory that explains gravity is a. special relativity b. general relativity c. quantum mechanics
Gravity is a. the strongest force b. the second strongest force c. the weakest force
The electromagnetic force a. changes particle types b. holds particles together in the nucleus of an atom c. controls the attraction and repulsion of charged particles
Discussion/essay questions
Unifying the forces is one part of a big problem for scientists. Scientists use two theories to explain the universe: relativity and quantum theory. These theories have different laws. Scientists hope to find a “theory of everything” that uses the same laws to explain all things. Do you think it is possible for humans to discover the theory of everything? Why or why not?
Transcript
The fundamental forces are the four basic forces that control interactions of matter. The most well-known force is gravity. This is the force that draws large objects together. The theory that explains gravity is Einstein’s theory of general relativity. General relativity states that massive objects bend space and time, which causes other objects to fall toward them. However, gravity is the weakest force. The other forces are the electromagnetic force, the weak nuclear force, and the strong nuclear force. These forces work on small particles. The electromagnetic force controls the attraction and repulsion of charged particles, like protons and electrons. The weak nuclear force can change one particle into another type of particle. The strong nuclear force holds particles together in the nucleus of an atom. Scientists believe that at the beginning of time, all four forces were unified. This is difficult to prove, because the laws of general relativity don’t work at small scales. This means that there is no current theory that can unify gravity with the other forces.
The ancient Egyptians wrote on a. paper b. papyrus c. parchment
Ts’ai Lun’s paper was made of rags, bark, and a. animal skin b. papyrus stems c. old fishing nets
In the 11th century, paper came to Morocco and Spain with a. the Roman Empire b. the Islamic Caliphate c. the Mongol Empire
Discussion/essay questions
Some historians believe that the most powerful society during each period in history was often the one with the most access to paper. Do you think this is true? Why or why not?
Over the last few decades, information has been moving online. Do you think paper will continue to be important in the future? Why or why not?
Transcript
In ancient times, people carved words on stone. The earliest paper-like material was papyrus, which ancient Egyptians made from the stems of the papyrus plant. However, the basic paper-making process began in China around 100 CE. A courtier named Ts’ai Lun mashed rags, bark, and old fishing nets into a pulp. He used water to hold the pulp together and let it dry into a sheet. Before, Chinese scribes had written on woven fabric. Ts’ai Lun’s process made it easier to copy books and spread information. Paper spread first to Korea and Japan, and then to the Middle East through the Silk Road. The Islamic Caliphate brought paper to Morocco and Spain in the 11th century. Europe took a while to start using paper. Roman officials thought parchment was more refined. However, the invention of the Gutenberg press changed this. Paper was cheaper to make than parchment, which made it better for mass printing. As production of paper increased around the world, so did literacy.
Chaplin moved to the US to star in a. vaudeville shows b. silent films c. radio shows
Chaplin’s first sound film was a. The Kid b. The Immigrant c. The Great Dictator
The US government accused Chaplin of being a. a fascist b. an anarchist c. a communist
Discussion/essay questions
Do you think comedy is an important tool for social change? Why or why not?
Transcript
Charlie Chaplin was an English comedian and actor. He was born in 1889 in London. Both of his parents were music hall performers, and he began acting on the stage when he was very young. He later moved to the United States to star in vaudeville shows. In 1914, he began acting for a silent-film company, where he invented his alter ego, “The Tramp.” His persona quickly became world famous. He began writing and directing his own silent films, playing The Tramp in many of them. Chaplin’s first sound film, The Great Dictator, parodied Hitler in the early days of World War II. In the 1940s and 1950s, Chaplin began to talk more about his political opinions. The US government feared he was a communist and banned him from the country. He was only invited back to accept an Academy Award in 1972, five years before his death.
In All Quiet on the Western Front, the main characters are convinced to enlist by a. their parents b. the newspapers c. their teacher
The book was controversial for its a. nationalism b. patriotism c. pacifism
In 1931, a. the book was first published in a German magazine b. the book was made into a movie c. the book was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize
Discussion/essay questions
Books are often banned if they contain controversial ideas. Have any books ever been banned in your country? What was the reason?
Transcript
All Quiet on the Western Front is a 1929 novel by German author Erich Maria Remarque. It tells the story of 20-year-old Paul Baumer, a soldier in the German army during World War I. In the novel, Paul and his friends are convinced to enlist by their teacher‘s nationalist speeches. However, when they enter the trenches, they realize that the reality of war is nothing like the propaganda. The characters in the novel are fictional, but the story borrows from Remarque’s real experiences as a soldier. The book sold well when it was first released, but it was controversial. Politicians in Germany and around the world disliked its pacifist themes. When the Nazis gained power, they attacked and burnedAll Quiet on the Western Front for being “anti-German.” The book was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize in 1931. It is still viewed as one of the most important war novels in history.
The main purpose of the Mayo Clinic experiment was a. to reduce the symptoms of HIV in cats b. to make cats immune to FIV c. to make cats glow in the dark
The antiviral gene came from a. monkeys b. jellyfish c. mice
The goal of the “glow” gene was a. to make the experiment more interesting for the researchers b. to attract media attention and raise money for HIV c. to test the results of the antiviral gene
Discussion/essay questions
Weird science experiments often make the news. Have you heard any other stories of strange or unusual experiments?
Transcript
In 2011, scientists at the Mayo Clinic began an experiment. They were trying to use a gene to prevent feline immunodeficiency virus, or FIV, in cats. FIV is genetically similar to HIV in humans. If scientists could use genetic engineering to make cats immune to FIV, they might also be able to reduce human deaths from HIV and AIDS. The scientists modified cat eggs with an antiviral gene from monkeys. They paired this gene with a jellyfish gene that causes bioluminescence, which is a natural ability to glow in the dark. The goal of the “glow” gene was to help the scientists test their results. If the kittens glowed, the scientists would know that the antiviral gene had been activated. The experiment created three glow-in-the-dark cats with cells that showed immunity to FIV. These cats also passed both genes on to their own kittens.
As a teenager, Einstein wondered what would happen if a human could chase a. a beam of light b. a train c. a clock
Einstein’s 1905 theory is called a. general relativity b. special relativity c. universal relativity
The speed of light is a. constant b. variable c. relative
Discussion/essay questions
Most scientists think that time travel to the past is probably not possible. However, time dilation means that time travel to the future would be possible if we could move very fast. What would you do if you could time travel? Do you think it would be more interesting to travel to the past or the future?
Transcript
When Albert Einstein was a teenager, he wondered what would happen if a human could run fast enough to chase a beam of light. This thought experiment led to his 1905 theory of special relativity. Einstein’s theory showed that time was not universal. People could experience time differently if they were moving very fast. This effect is called time dilation. Einstein used a few scientific laws to support his theory. The first was that speed is relative. Two trains travelling at the same speed in the same direction stand still relative to each other. However, experiments before Einstein had already proved that the speed of light is always 300,000 kilometres per second. This is true no matter how fast the observer moves. Even if a person could chase a beam of light, the light would always outrun them by the same speed. Einstein realized that because the speed of light was constant, another variable had to change. This variable was time. Since Einstein published his theory, experiments have shown that clocks run slower at high speeds.
To vote in Athenian democracy, you had to be a. a free citizen b. a free land-owning citizen c. a free male citizen
The part of government made up of all eligible Athenian citizens was called a. the Senate b. the Council c. the Assembly
Most democracies around the world are a. direct b. representative c. authoritarian
Discussion/essay questions
Winston Churchill famously said “Democracy is the worst system of government except for all those other forms that have been tried.” What do you think of this quote? Do you agree or disagree? What do you think the best system of government would look like?
Transcript
The word “democracy” comes from the ancient Greek word demokratia. “Demos” means “people” and kratos means “rule.” The idea of demokratia originated in Athens around 500 BCE. Athenian democracy was a direct democracy, which meant it allowed the people to vote on decisions and laws. Not everyone could vote. Only free male citizens were eligible. The eligible people formed a part of government called the Assembly. To participate, Athenian men had to go to Assembly meetings and share their opinions. Although the word “democracy” originated in Greece, there is evidence for other ancient democracies. Some early tribes around the world used popular rule. Many historians now believe that civilizations in Mesoamerica also had democratic governments. Today, most democracies are representative, which means that people elect leaders to make decisions for them. However, some countries, like Switzerland, require referendums for important decisions.
