The OED is considered a. a modern dictionary b. an obsolete dictionary c. a historical dictionary
It took five years to complete a. the entire 10-volume first edition of the OED b. the first volume of the OED, containing words up to “ant” c. the process of compiling words and quotes from volunteers
James Murray was a. the volunteer who submitted the most words to the OED b. the linguist who came up with the idea of a comprehensive dictionary c. the editor of the OED’s first published volumes
Discussion/essay questions
Where do you usually look for definitions of words? Do you think printed dictionaries are becoming obsolete?
The OED was developed as a descriptive dictionary, which means it describes how people actually use words. Earlier English dictionaries were often prescriptive, which means their goal was to define a “correct” way of using words. Which approach do you think is better? Are both useful? Why?
Transcript
The Oxford English Dictionary, or OED, is the largest dictionary of the English language. The OED is a historical dictionary, which means it has a different purpose from other English dictionaries. It contains both modern definitions and obsolete ones. This is useful for studying etymology and interpreting historical writings. The creation of the OED began in the late 19th century. It was inspired by comprehensive dictionaries of other languages, such as Deutsches Wörterbuch, a German dictionary compiled by the brothers Grimm. The original OED relied on words and quotes mailed in by volunteers. The first volume of the dictionary took five years to finish. This volume only included words up to “ant”. James Murray, the editor of the first published volumes, died before the entire OED was complete. The current edition contains 20 volumes and over 600,000 defined words.
In 1066, England was conquered by the Duke of a. Normandy b. Norfolk c. Norway
Historically, French loanwords that entered the English vocabulary were considered a. vulgar b. common c. refined
“Le shopping” is an example of a. a loanword that English acquired when the British Empire colonized North America b. a loanword that English borrowed from French c. a loanword that French borrowed from English
Discussion/essay questions
A few English loanwords are ballet (from French), algebra (from Arabic), and tsunami (from Japanese). Can you think of any others? Does English have any loanwords from your first language?
What are some loanwords in your first language? Do any of them come from English?
Transcript
A loanword is any word that one language borrows from another language. This often happens when different cultures interact through trade or colonization. The English language, for example, contains many loanwords from French. This is because England was conquered in 1066 by William, the Duke of Normandy. As a result, many French loanwords entered the English vocabulary. Because the ruling class was mostly French, the French loanwords often had more “refined” connotations than Old English terms. During the years of the British Empire, the English language acquired more loanwords from cultures in North America, Africa, India, and Australia. English is the most spoken language today, and it has passed on many of its own loanwords. French now contains terms like “le shopping”, and even Japanese borrows English words phonetically.
Throughout history, writing was independently invented a. once b. twice c. three times
The first known writing system came from a. the Chinese b. the Maya c. the Sumerians
The Sumerian writing system began as a. flat pictographs b. clay tokens c. abstract symbols
Discussion/essay questions
Chinese characters are the oldest writing system still in use. Why do you think they have survived so long?
English uses the Latin alphabet. What writing system does your first language use? Where did it evolve from?
Transcript
Throughout history, at least three cultures have independently invented written language. Ancient writing systems can be traced to the Mesopotamian, Chinese, and Maya civilizations. The first known writing system originated in Sumer, a Mesopotamian civilization in modern-day Iraq. The Sumerians used clay tokens to track their food supply. They carved small pictures into the tokens to represent an amount of animals or grain. Around 3500 BCE, scribes began to arrange these pictographs into more detailed messages. Written messages were useful for sending trade information over long distances. Over time, the symbols used by Sumerian scribes became more abstract. They evolved into a complex writing system, called “cuneiform,” which many languages used for thousands of years.
Dante originally called his work a. Divina b. Commedia c. Tragedia
In the story, the ancient poet Dante receives guidance from is a. Virgil b. Homer c. Ovid
The language Dante wrote the poem in was a. Latin b. Greek c. Italian
Discussion/essay questions
Is there an author or poet who has made great contributions to your language? Who are they? What are some of their most famous works?
Transcript
The Divine Comedy is an epic poem by Italian writer Dante Alighieri. It was written in the early 1300s, in three books. Dante originally called his work Commedia. He used the word comedy to mean a story with a happy ending. Publishers later added the word “divine” to describe the subject matter. The poem follows a fictionalized version of Dante as he travels through the different parts of the Christian afterlife. Throughout his journey, Dante receives guidance from the ancient Roman poet Virgil, as well as a woman named Beatrice, who is likely inspired by a real woman from Dante’s life. The poem is famous for its contributions to theology, but also to language. During Dante’s time, poets in many parts of Europe wrote exclusively in Latin. Dante’s choice to write The Divine Comedy in his local Tuscan dialect was bold and unusual. His work helped create the standard language spoken by Italians today.
The original Latin alphabet had a. capital letters only b. lowercase letters only c. both capital and lowercase letters
The word “lowercase” comes from a. the emperor Charlemagne b. medieval English scribes c. early newspaper offices
From the 16th to the 18th centuries, it was popular to capitalize a. words at the end of a sentence as well as the beginning b. all important words, including most nouns c. all verbs and adjectives
Discussion/essay questions
In German, the capitalization of nouns is still a common practice. In some alphabets, like Arabic, there are no capital letters. Does your native language have capital and lowercase letters? What are the basic rules for using them?
Can you write a comment using 16th-century English capitalization?
Transcript
The English alphabet derives from the Latin alphabet, which was first used in ancient Rome. The original Latin alphabet only had capital letters. Lowercase letters evolved as scribes found faster ways to write by hand. Around 800 A.D., the emperor Charlemagne created a standard lowercase Latin alphabet. The two types of letters gained the names “uppercase” and “lowercase” after the invention of the Gutenberg press. Early newspaper offices stored letters in wooden cases. They kept the smaller letters in the lower cases because they used them more often. English capitalization rules varied throughout history. From the 16th to the 18th century, it was popular to capitalize all important words in a sentence, including most nouns. This ended around the beginning of the 19th century, when English grammar developed more universal rules.
Shared languages are common between a. mothers and their children b. twins c. childhood friends
A language that only one or two people know is called an a. idiosyncrasy b. idioglossia c. idiotype
Most of the time, invented languages a. go away when children mature b. blend with a child’s first language c. can be understood by a child’s parents
Discussion/essay questions
Some people believe that even adult twins can communicate with each other in a way that others can’t understand. Do you think this is true? Why or why not?
Different from an idioglossia, an idiolect is a single person’s unique use of language. Everyone has an idiolect, even if they speak a common language. What are some ways that two speakers of the same language might use it differently?
Transcript
In early childhood, many siblings, especially twins, create shared languages that no one else can understand. A language known by only one or two people is called an idioglossia. These languages can have invented words, gestures, and sounds that communicate basic ideas. Children often create idioglossias early in their development, as they begin to understand how languages work. It is common in twins because they experience these stages of development at the same time, and they learn by imitating each other. Most of the time, invented languages go away as children mature. It is rare for a pair of twins to keep their shared language through adulthood.
Sholes designed the QWERTY keyboard for a. typewriters b. early computers c. touch screens
The purpose of the QWERTY layout is a. to stop keys from jamming b. to help telegraph operators translate Morse code c. unknown and still debated
It is difficult to modify the standard keyboard because a. it is the most efficient layout for typing in English b. it works very well with modern technology c. it is the layout that most people have developed muscle memory for
Discussion/essay questions
How fast do you type? Do you think you could adapt to a new type of keyboard?
The popularity of QWERTY keyboards has caused some people to be concerned that the traditional writing systems of character-based languages may be lost. Why do you think this is? Is there a solution?
Transcript
The standard layout for an English keyboard spells out “QWERTY” at the top. American inventor Christopher Sholes created this keyboard in 1868 for typewriters. The purpose of the QWERTY layout is unknown. One theory is that Sholes designed it to slow typists down so that keys would not jam. Another is that it helped telegraph operators translate Morse code easily. However, it is not the most efficient layout for typing words. Many inventors have tried to modify the standard keyboard, but this is difficult. People rely on muscle memory when they type, and it is hard to adapt to a keyboard with a different arrangement of letters. As the world becomes more dependent on technology, QWERTY keyboards have become common even in countries with languages that use characters instead of letters.
One problem with Esperanto is that it is more difficult to learn for people whose native languages don’t use the Latin alphabet. Do you think it is possible to create a language that is equally accessible to everyone?
Transcript
Esperanto is a constructed language. It was invented in 1887 by a Polish doctor named L. L. Zamenhof. Zamenhof’s goal was to create a universal second language so that people around the world could communicate with each other. Esperanto does not belong to any country or culture, but like many languages in Europe, it uses the Latin alphabet and Latin root words. It was designed to be easy to learn, with simple grammatical rules and phonetic spelling. Although Esperanto did not succeed as a universal language, it is still used today. Over 100,000 people around the world can speak Esperanto. Some people have even raised children to speak Esperanto as a native language.
Koko was a famous who could communicate using sign language. She was born in 1971 at the San Francisco Zoo in California. In 1972, a psychologist named Francine Patterson began to Koko some basic signs. Over time, Koko developed a of over 1,000 signs, and she was able to over 2,000 spoken words. She even invented some signs of her own. Patterson insisted that Koko could express her through language. However, some skeptics believed that Patterson was looking for meaning that wasn’t really there. Koko died in 2018, but her accomplishments have caused many people to wonder if humans can learn to speak with animals.
Comprehension questions
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Discussion/essay questions
Some people believe that language is a skill only humans can learn. They often argue that Koko didn’t really understand language, and she simply learned to copy the signs that her trainers taught her. What do you think? Could animals really use and understand language?
Transcript
Koko was a famous gorilla who could communicate using sign language. She was born in 1971 at the San Francisco Zoo in California. In 1972, a psychologist named Francine Patterson began to teach Koko some basic signs. Over time, Koko developed a vocabulary of over 1,000 signs, and she was able to understand over 2,000 spoken words. She even invented some signs of her own. Patterson insisted that Koko could express her emotions through language. However, some skeptics believed that Patterson was looking for meaning that wasn’t really there. Koko died in 2018, but her accomplishments have caused many people to wonder if humans can learn to speak with animals.
Many people consider flowers to be a universal . People often give each other flowers that represent certain emotions. Red roses, for example, are widely known as the flower of love. But the language of flowers was once used for more than just . In the 19th century, society was very restrictive. People were expected to proper etiquette, and many topics were considered taboo. Flowers gave people the opportunity to secretly express their true feelings and . Back then, flower language was much more complex. There were many books about interpreting flower arrangements. But as time went on, social rules became more relaxed, and people no longer needed a way to send secret . Flowers still have meanings today, but most people use them to express basic feelings like love or friendship.
Comprehension questions
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Discussion/essay questions
Flowers are just one way to send secret messages. Do you know any other methods that people have used to communicate secretly?
Transcript
Many people consider flowers to be a universal language. People often give each other flowers that represent certain emotions. Red roses, for example, are widely known as the flower of love. But the language of flowers was once used for more than just gifts. In the 19th century, society was very restrictive. People were expected to follow proper etiquette, and many topics were considered taboo. Flowers gave people the opportunity to secretly express their true feelings and opinions. Back then, flower language was much more complex. There were many books about interpreting flower arrangements. But as time went on, social rules became more relaxed, and people no longer needed a way to send secret messages. Flowers still have meanings today, but most people use them to express basic feelings like love or friendship.
Most dogs are enough to understand some important commands from their owners. They may even know the names of a few different toys, or recognize when their owners are offering them . However, a border collie named Chaser is known as the world’s smartest dog. Throughout Chaser’s life, a psychologist named Dr. Pilley trained her every day to recognize the names of her toys. Eventually, she proved that she could understand the of over 1,000 distinct words. She could even recognize if a word was unfamiliar, and use that information to identify toys she’d never seen before. Her ability to learn and language seemed unique, but researchers involved in Chaser’s insisted that any dog could be taught the same thing. Chaser died in 2019 at 15 years old, but her life helped scientists learn more about how dogs think.
Comprehension questions
[wp_quiz id=”20025″]
Discussion/essay questions
Do you have a pet? If so, how do you train your pet to follow commands?
Do you agree that all dogs are capable of learning language just like Chaser? Why or why not?
Transcript
Most dogs are intelligent enough to understand some important commands from their owners. They may even know the names of a few different toys, or recognize when their owners are offering them treats. However, a border collie named Chaser is known as the world’s smartest dog. Throughout Chaser’s life, a psychologist named Dr. Pilley trained her every day to recognize the names of her toys. Eventually, she proved that she could understand the meanings of over 1,000 distinct words. She could even recognize if a word was unfamiliar, and use that information to identify toys she’d never seen before. Her ability to learn and understand language seemed unique, but researchers involved in Chaser’s training insisted that any dog could be taught the same thing. Chaser died in 2019 at 15 years old, but her life helped scientists learn more about how dogs think.
The Voynich Manuscript is a mysterious that was written in Europe back in the 15th century. The manuscript was named after Polish bookseller Wilfrid Voynich, who brought it to public attention after he purchased it in 1912. The Voynich Manuscript contains bizarre of mysterious plants and constellations, and the text is written in an unknown language that humans have still not been able to . The author of the text is also unknown. Some theories suggest that the manuscript was written by aliens, while other people believe that it was simply written as a guide to medicinal plants. It is likely that the alphabet used in the text is a code, and that the manuscript was originally written in a known European language. However, no one knows what the original language is. Recently, have turned to artificial intelligence to help them decipher the text, but so far, its meaning is still unclear. The Voynich Manuscript is currently kept at Yale University in the United States.
Comprehension questions
[wp_quiz id=”19391″]
Discussion/essay questions
Do you think that we will ever be able to decipher the Voynich manuscript? Why or why not?
Transcript
The Voynich Manuscript is a mysterious text that was written in Europe back in the 15th century. The manuscript was named after Polish bookseller Wilfrid Voynich, who brought it to public attention after he purchased it in 1912. The Voynich Manuscript contains bizarre drawings of mysterious plants and constellations, and the text is written in an unknown language that humans have still not been able to translate. The author of the text is also unknown. Some theories suggest that the manuscript was written by aliens, while other people believe that it was simply written as a guide to medicinal plants. It is likely that the unfamiliar alphabet used in the text is a code, and that the manuscript was originally written in a known European language. However, no one knows what the original language is. Recently, researchers have turned to artificial intelligence to help them decipher the text, but so far, its meaning is still unclear. The Voynich Manuscript is currently kept at Yale University in the United States.
One of the first things I get my students to do is to set out their language learning goals. This step is so crucial to language learning success, and the majority of students don’t even do it. When we talk about their goals the biggest problem they face is not being specific enough. The majority of them tell me “I want to become fluent in English.” That’s fantastic! I want that too! However, not only is that goal way too vague, it’s also hard to define. What actually is fluency? Not even linguistic scholars have reached an agreement about what it means. When I ask my students to define what they think fluency is, we encounter some issues with their definition that can actually damage their chances of becoming fluent.
I did a survey on instagram asking my followers what “fluency” meant to them. Nobody came up with the same answer. What every answer did have in common, though, was that vagueness. One person said: “fluency means meeting requirements regarding coherence and cohesion, secondly it means having advanced vocabulary and using it without any physical intervention in speaking and writing.”
Let’s analyse this. My first issue is with “meeting requirements regarding coherence and cohesion”. Whose requirements? Which requirements? How is coherence and cohesion measured? Requirements stated like this isn’t specific enough, it doesn’t refer to a concrete schema so it’s essentially useless.
Next we have “advanced vocabulary” which is better, but still not enough. Many people, including natives, don’t have advanced vocabulary but are still fluent. Advanced vocabulary isn’t the same as a wide vocabulary range. For example, a word like “solipsistic” is advanced vocabulary and only people with a certain level of education would use this word. However, many native speakers wouldn’t know this word, but they are still fluent in their own language.
Finally, the term “without physical intervention” is probably more of a mistranslation. The person essentially means that the speaker has a good, quick recall ability and doesn’t have to ask for help in recalling words.
I still have an issue with this.
I speak Spanish fluently yet from time to time I will forget a word mid-sentence and have to ask someone how to say it. I even do it in English which is my mother tongue. You know those, “oh, what do you call that again? You know…that thingy?!” moments. We experience that even in our own mother tongue.
Let’s look at another person’s definition which I like better: “to speak a language without hesitating.” It’s short, it’s simple, it’s concrete and to a degree I totally agree. However, imagine this situation: you know absolutely nothing about quantum physics. Literally zero, but your friends all love quantum physics and are talking about it one evening at a dinner party. You’re not paying much attention and one of your friends asks you: “What is the meaning of the angular frequency ω and wave number k of waves?”
Umm…what?
You get nervous and try to recall any type of high school physics class that may be of use. But…you draw a total blank.
“I have no idea!” you say “I don’t know anything about this!” And then your friends politely change the topic of conversation…
You would hesitate in that situation, no? However, it wouldn’t mean that you weren’t fluent in your language, just that you don’t happen to possess the language or knowledge needed to engage in that situation. This is one of the reasons that I hate ESL speaking exams. They have a limited range of topics on the day of the exam (“choose to speak either about the environment or the dangers of social media…”) and perhaps the student can’t even converse about those topics with great confidence in their own language because the topic doesn’t interest them or they know little about it.
So while the “speaking without hesitation” definition is certainly closer to a better understanding of fluency, it’s certainly not without its flaws. The reasons behind the hesitation are more important than the actual hesitation itself. If you find yourself hesitating a lot because you’re translating in your mind and are having trouble recalling specific words or grammatical structures of English, then you are experiencing a problem with fluency. If, however, you don’t know what to say, neither in English nor in your mother tongue, it isn’t a problem with fluency, it’s a problem with knowledge and/or interest. The difference is very important.
Do you want to know the one thing nobody mentioned? How fluent your interactions are. Let me explain what I mean by that.
At the minute I’m bridging the gap between intermediate-advanced in French. It’s that horrible stage where you feel like your progress is slow and fluency seems a million miles away. I can monologue quite well in French, I have problems with dialogue. This is because fluency isn’t just about your ability to produce language, it’s also your ability to react quickly and with confidence with people in your target language.
In Spanish I basically don’t have to think when someone asks me a question and if I want to respond to them my mouth does all the work without me having to actively think. However, in French I find a greater lag or hesitation when I have to respond to someone. I have to ask people to repeat the question, I have to focus harder on understanding them when they speak, and I take longer to recall and organize my thoughts before I speak.
All of that means I am not as fluent in French as I am in Spanish. It’s why I wouldn’t say I’m fluent in French but I can say with confidence that I’m fluent in Spanish. So, what is fluency then? As there is no set agreement on the term among linguists we have to come up with our own definitions that mean something to us.
Mine for instance is: interacting in my target language coherently at a comfortable speed with a good deal of confidence using a wide range of vocabulary with few hesitations or problems regarding vocabulary recall and usage of correct grammatical structures.
It isn’t just speaking without hesitation: we can all hesitate from time to time. It isn’t about dropping words like “solipsistic” into casual conversation, and it’s not about speaking completely error-free either.
So as we’ve seen fluency isn’t so black-and-white; but the main takeaway is that it isn’t just about your ability to produce language—it’s also about your ability to interact with it and respond to it in an organic, natural way.
Do you like my definition of fluency? Do you have your own definition of fluency that helps you in your English language journey? Please share in the comments and get in touch with me to share your thoughts.
